WEBVTT 00:00:02.200 --> 00:00:08.588 Last topic in this course is the Top ten list of elementary rules of usage, a kind of top ten 00:00:08.612 --> 00:00:15.000 list of basic grammatical rules in English, or most common mistakes that people usually make. 00:00:15.200 --> 00:00:21.088 Our source for this is also the previously mentioned book Elements of Style written 00:00:21.112 --> 00:00:27.000 100 years ago by William Strunk and enlarged some half a century ago by Elwyn White. 00:00:27.200 --> 00:00:31.000 Rule number 10 - Form the possessive singular of nouns with 's 00:00:31.500 --> 00:00:36.800 Follow this rule whatever the last consonant is, so even when a name ends with s. 00:00:37.500 --> 00:00:43.900 The only exception are the possessive forms of ancient proper names, for example 00:00:43.924 --> 00:00:50.000 the possessive Jesus', and such forms as for conscience' sake, and alike. 00:00:50.500 --> 00:01:00.000 So, possessive forms of ancient names are thus commonly expressed in a form the heel of Achilles, the laws of Moses or the temple of Isis. 00:01:00.700 --> 00:01:09.000 Rule number 9 - In a series of three or more terms with a single conjunction, use a comma after each term except the last 00:01:09.500 --> 00:01:13.000 For example: red, white, and blue. 00:01:13.500 --> 00:01:19.000 Or: He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of its contents. 00:01:19.500 --> 00:01:24.000 By the way, this seems to me to be preferred in American English and perhaps not universal. 00:01:24.500 --> 00:01:31.000 However, whether you use or don't use comma before the last term, make sure at least to be consistent. 00:01:32.200 --> 00:01:37.000 Rule number 8 - Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas 00:01:37.800 --> 00:01:44.003 This rule is rather difficult to apply, because it is often hard to decide whether 00:01:44.027 --> 00:01:50.000 a single word, such as however, or a brief phrase, is or is not parenthetic. 00:01:50.500 --> 00:01:56.800 Generally, if the interruption to the flow of the sentence is only slight, we can safely omit the commas. 00:01:57.200 --> 00:02:02.000 But if the interruption is not slight, we should use the comma. 00:02:03.800 --> 00:02:09.500 Example: My dad, a former CIA agent, speaks English, French, and Thai. 00:02:10.000 --> 00:02:19.000 It's clear, because a phrase: a former CIA agent, is actually a very strong interruption, so this should be made by using commas. 00:02:19.500 --> 00:02:27.988 However, in this example: The man who opened the door was my uncle; also contains the phrase: who opened the door, 00:02:28.012 --> 00:02:36.500 which presents the interruption, but since this interruption is rather slight, we don't need use commas for it. 00:02:36.700 --> 00:02:44.000 And the third example: In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had but recently been acquired by France. 00:02:44.200 --> 00:02:53.000 This phrase: when Napoleon was born, is still rather strong interupption and again, should be written by using commas. 00:02:54.000 --> 00:02:59.000 Rule number 7 - Do not join independent clauses by a comma 00:02:59.200 --> 00:03:03.800 Very good example is: Let's eat Grandma and Let's eat, Grandma. 00:03:04.000 --> 00:03:09.000 Omitting a comma in the first example makes grandma being eaten for dinner. 00:03:10.000 --> 00:03:14.000 Rule number 6 - Use a semicolon instead of a comma when appropriate 00:03:14.500 --> 00:03:20.238 If two or more clauses are grammatically complete and not joined by a conjunction, they 00:03:20.262 --> 00:03:26.000 should form a single compound sentence, the proper mark is a semicolon, not a comma. 00:03:26.800 --> 00:03:33.000 For example: Mary Shelley's works are entertaining; they are full of engaging ideas. 00:03:33.200 --> 00:03:38.000 Or: It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark. 00:03:38.800 --> 00:03:44.920 Using a semicolon can be quite effective, as this can signal a break or a transition that is 00:03:44.944 --> 00:03:51.000 fless orceful than a separate sentence, and still stronger than comma, which is often very useful. 00:03:51.500 --> 00:03:54.000 Rule number 5 - Using a colon 00:03:54.500 --> 00:04:03.000 Use a colon after an independent clause to introduce a list of particulars, an appositive, an amplification, or an illustrative quotation. 00:04:03.500 --> 00:04:09.000 A colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause. 00:04:09.500 --> 00:04:16.000 Rule number 4 - Place a comma before and or but introducing an independent clause 00:04:17.000 --> 00:04:23.000 The early records of the city have disappeared, and the story of its first years can no longer be reconstructed. 00:04:23.500 --> 00:04:29.000 The situation is perilous, but there is still one chance of escape. 00:04:30.000 --> 00:04:34.500 Rule number 3 - Do not break sentences in two 00:04:34.800 --> 00:04:38.000 In other words, do not use periods for commas. 00:04:38.500 --> 00:04:40.000 Have a look at these examples: 00:04:40.500 --> 00:04:47.000 I met them on a train several years ago. Coming home from Liverpool to New York. 00:04:47.500 --> 00:04:56.000 He was an interesting talker. A man who had traveled all over the world, and lived in half a dozen countries. 00:04:56.200 --> 00:05:03.000 In both cases, the first period should be replaced by a comma, and the following word begun with a small letter. 00:05:04.300 --> 00:05:07.000 Rule number 2 - Subject-Verb Agreement 00:05:07.800 --> 00:05:13.000 This rule prescribes that the number of the subject determines the number of the verb. 00:05:13.500 --> 00:05:24.000 For example: The bittersweet flavor of youth - its trials, its joys, its adventures, its challenges - is not soon forgotten. 00:05:24.500 --> 00:05:35.000 Use a singular verb form after the following: each, either, everyone, everybody, neither, nobody, someone. 00:05:35.500 --> 00:05:40.000 Example: Everybody thinks he or she has a unique sense of humor. 00:05:41.500 --> 00:05:46.000 When both halves of the subject is singular, so is the verb. 00:05:47.000 --> 00:05:53.000 And when half of the subject is singular and the other half plural, focus on the subject nearest the verb. 00:05:53.800 --> 00:05:56.500 If both halves are plural, then so is the verb. 00:05:56.800 --> 00:06:00.000 For example: Ties or ascots are required. 00:06:01.000 --> 00:06:08.000 Rule number 1 - A participial phrase at the beginning of a sentence must refer to the grammatical subject 00:06:08.500 --> 00:06:13.000 This is too often mistaken that it requires particular attention. 00:06:13.300 --> 00:06:20.000 For instance: Walking slowly down the road, he saw a woman accompanied by two children. 00:06:20.500 --> 00:06:25.000 The word walking refers to the subject of the sentence, not to the woman. 00:06:25.600 --> 00:06:30.363 So, if the writer wishes to make it refer to the woman, he must recast the sentence: 00:06:30.387 --> 00:06:36.000 He saw a woman, accompanied by two children, walking slowly down the road. 00:06:36.700 --> 00:06:44.000 Participial and adjective phrases also come under the same rule if they are at the beginning of the sentence. 00:06:45.000 --> 00:06:50.000 For instance: On arriving in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. 00:06:50.400 --> 00:06:56.188 Again, this reads as if the friends have just arrived, and the appropriate form is thus: 00:06:56.212 --> 00:07:02.000 When he arrived | or, On his arrival | in Chicago, his friends met him at the station. 00:07:03.500 --> 00:07:10.000 Or another example: A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with the defense of the city. 00:07:11.000 --> 00:07:17.000 This can be told as: A soldier of proved valor, he was entrusted with the defense of the city. 00:07:17.500 --> 00:07:19.000 And so on. 00:07:19.200 --> 00:07:26.500 Thus, if you follow these 10 rules, you will probably avoid many common mistakes in using or writing in English. 00:07:27.000 --> 00:07:28.500 So, good luck with them!