WEBVTT 00:00:02.200 --> 00:00:06.800 It's now the time for our top ten basic principles of composition. 00:00:07.100 --> 00:00:15.000 I follow here the famous little book called The Elements of Style, which is by many considered as the Bible for young journalists. 00:00:15.200 --> 00:00:23.000 It is only a few dozens of pages, but book summarizes most rules and typical mistakes in English language. 00:00:24.000 --> 00:00:26.800 Rule number 10 - Keep related words together 00:00:27.100 --> 00:00:31.000 The position of the words in a sentence shows their relation. 00:00:31.500 --> 00:00:38.800 You should connect and place together those words that are related, or your sentences can be ambiguous and unclear. 00:00:39.300 --> 00:00:41.000 Compare these two examples: 00:00:41.200 --> 00:00:48.000 You can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner for just two dollars. 00:00:48.800 --> 00:00:56.000 Or: For just two dollars you can call your mother in London and tell her all about George's taking you out to dinner. 00:00:56.200 --> 00:01:01.132 What is the difference here - well, of course, it is the call that costs two 00:01:01.156 --> 00:01:06.088 dollars, not the dinner, otherwise the sentence would mean as if she wanted to 00:01:06.112 --> 00:01:11.044 complain to her mother that George is stingy, whereas, actually, she was glad 00:01:11.068 --> 00:01:16.000 that George took her out to dinner and she wants to tell that to her mother. 00:01:16.200 --> 00:01:19.000 The second example is from the actual Newspapers: 00:01:19.200 --> 00:01:24.088 New York's first commercial human-sperm bank opened Friday 00:01:24.112 --> 00:01:29.000 with semen samples from eighteen men frozen in a stainless steel tank. 00:01:29.800 --> 00:01:34.388 The problem with the first sentence is, of course, that it is not the men that were frozen 00:01:34.412 --> 00:01:39.000 but the samples, so it should actually be transformed in the following way: 00:01:39.200 --> 00:01:46.488 New York's first commercial human-sperm bank opened Friday when semen samples were taken from eighteen men. 00:01:46.512 --> 00:01:51.800 The samples were then frozen and stored in a stainless steel tank. 00:01:52.500 --> 00:01:56.000 Rule number 9 - In summaries, keep to one tense 00:01:56.500 --> 00:02:00.000 When you are summarizing the action, use the present tense. 00:02:00.500 --> 00:02:05.238 In summarizing a poem, story, or novel, also use the present, 00:02:05.262 --> 00:02:10.000 though you may use the past if it seems more natural to do so. 00:02:10.500 --> 00:02:15.488 If the summary is in the present tense, a latter action should be in 00:02:15.512 --> 00:02:20.500 the perfect; and action that occurred earlier in the past perfect. 00:02:21.000 --> 00:02:24.000 But, whatever tense you chose, just be consistent. 00:02:25.500 --> 00:02:30.000 Rule number 8 - Place the emphatic words of a sentence at the end. 00:02:31.200 --> 00:02:36.000 Usual place for a word or words that should be most important is at the end. 00:02:36.500 --> 00:02:39.800 Different word order can make your sentences quite different. 00:02:40.500 --> 00:02:43.000 Have a look at these examples: 00:02:43.200 --> 00:02:47.329 If you say that This steel is principally used for making 00:02:47.353 --> 00:02:52.000 razors, because of its hardness, the emphasis is on hardness. 00:02:52.200 --> 00:03:00.000 But, if you say: Because of its hardness, steel is used principally for making razors; then you have a different emphasis. 00:03:00.500 --> 00:03:07.000 So, if you are writing about razors, the second example is actually what you wanted to say or emphasize. 00:03:08.200 --> 00:03:12.000 Rule number 7 - Avoid a succession of loose sentences 00:03:12.200 --> 00:03:16.761 It is often the case in our writing to make complex, long sentences 00:03:16.785 --> 00:03:21.000 connected with a number of and, but, which, that and so on. 00:03:21.500 --> 00:03:30.000 It is much better to avoid monotony by breaking them into two, using semicolon, periodic sentences and the like. 00:03:30.500 --> 00:03:34.000 Rule number 6 - Omit needles words 00:03:34.300 --> 00:03:36.500 Good writing is concise. 00:03:37.500 --> 00:03:44.872 As William Stunk claims: "A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, 00:03:44.896 --> 00:03:52.000 for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessary parts." 00:03:52.500 --> 00:03:59.800 This does not mean to make all your sentences and writing short, but that every word you use has its place and purpose. 00:04:00.500 --> 00:04:05.000 We can name many examples of wordiness, for example: 00:04:05.500 --> 00:04:10.000 The question as to whether, should simply said: whether. 00:04:10.800 --> 00:04:15.000 There is no doubt but that, can be said as no doubt. 00:04:15.500 --> 00:04:21.000 He is a man who, it's simple to say just he. 00:04:21.500 --> 00:04:26.000 The reason why is that can simply said as because, and alike. 00:04:26.500 --> 00:04:31.000 Rule number 5 - Use definite, specific, concrete language 00:04:31.500 --> 00:04:37.000 Prefer the specific to the general, the definite to the vague, the concrete to the abstract. 00:04:37.300 --> 00:04:46.000 For example: A period of unfavorable weather set in; it can be said simply as: It rained every day for a week. 00:04:46.200 --> 00:04:51.088 Or: He showed satisfaction as he took possession of his well-earned 00:04:51.112 --> 00:04:56.000 reward; this can also be told as: He grinned as he pocketed the coin. 00:04:56.500 --> 00:05:01.000 Rule number 4 - Put statements in positive form 00:05:02.000 --> 00:05:06.000 Try to avoid hesitation, non-commitment, and evasion. 00:05:06.200 --> 00:05:11.000 Or, in other words, don't write or speak like many politicians do. 00:05:11.500 --> 00:05:18.000 He was not very often on time; it's better to say: He usually came late. 00:05:18.200 --> 00:05:26.121 Or take a look at this sentence: The "Taming of the Shrew" is rather weak in spots. Shakespeare does not portray Katherine 00:05:26.145 --> 00:05:34.000 as a very admirable character, not does Bianca remain long in memory as an important character in Shakespeare's works. 00:05:35.000 --> 00:05:39.488 This can be told as: The women in "The Taming of the Shrew" are 00:05:39.512 --> 00:05:44.000 unattractive. Katherine is disagreeable, Bianca is insignificant. 00:05:45.000 --> 00:05:48.000 Rule number 3 - Use the active voice 00:05:48.300 --> 00:05:54.500 This rule doesn't mean that we should completely discard the passive voice, which is often useful and sometimes necessary. 00:05:55.000 --> 00:05:59.000 However, too often in English people tend to overuse it. 00:05:59.100 --> 00:06:01.000 Take this example for instance: 00:06:01.300 --> 00:06:05.000 The dramatists of the Restoration are little esteemed today. 00:06:05.800 --> 00:06:12.000 We can say it like: Modern readers have little esteem for the dramatists of the Restoration. 00:06:12.700 --> 00:06:17.338 The first would be the more appropriate if one writes about the dramatists of 00:06:17.362 --> 00:06:22.000 the Restoration, and the second in a paragraph on the tastes of modern readers. 00:06:22.500 --> 00:06:26.738 The need to make a particular word the subject of the sentence will 00:06:26.762 --> 00:06:31.000 often, as in these examples, determine which voice is to be used. 00:06:31.400 --> 00:06:38.000 But using active voice is still often a better way to write lively, emphatically and with force. 00:06:38.500 --> 00:06:43.000 Compare these examples od using passive or active voice: 00:06:43.100 --> 00:06:46.000 There were a great number of dead leaves lying on the ground. 00:06:46.200 --> 00:06:49.000 Or: Dead leaves covered the ground. 00:06:51.000 --> 00:06:55.000 It was not long before she was very sorry that she had said what she said. 00:06:55.800 --> 00:06:58.000 She soon repented her words. 00:07:00.000 --> 00:07:06.500 Note, in these examples above, that when a sentence is made stronger, it usually becomes shorter. 00:07:06.900 --> 00:07:11.000 Thus, brevity is a by-product of vigor. 00:07:12.000 --> 00:07:16.000 Rule number 2 - Make the paragraph the unit of composition 00:07:16.200 --> 00:07:19.000 As we discussed earlier, the paragraph is a proper unit. 00:07:19.800 --> 00:07:23.717 As a rule, begin each paragraph either with a sentence that 00:07:23.741 --> 00:07:28.200 suggests the topic or with a sentence that helps the transition. 00:07:28.500 --> 00:07:34.000 Paragraph can be of any length, as long as they contain one logical block or a unit. 00:07:35.000 --> 00:07:40.000 In general, remember that paragraphing calls for a good eye as well as a logical mind. 00:07:41.000 --> 00:07:44.000 Rule number 1 - Choose a suitable design and hold to it 00:07:45.500 --> 00:07:51.000 We also mentioned that basic structural design underlies every kind of writing. 00:07:52.000 --> 00:07:57.549 Writers will in part follow this design, in part deviate from it, according to their skills, 00:07:57.573 --> 00:08:03.000 their needs, and of course the unexpected events that accompany the act of composition. 00:08:03.800 --> 00:08:11.000 Writing, to be effective, must follow closely the thoughts of the writer, but not necessarily in the order in which those thoughts occur. 00:08:11.500 --> 00:08:15.000 And this calls for a kind of scheme of procedure. 00:08:15.500 --> 00:08:22.000 In some cases, the best design maybe no design, perhaps in a love letter, that is made in hasty manner. 00:08:23.000 --> 00:08:29.522 But in most cases, planning must be accurate and precise and the first principle of composition, 00:08:29.546 --> 00:08:36.000 therefore, is to foresee or determine the shape of what is to come and to pursue that shape.